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DESCRIPTION :Up for sale is a FINE COPY of ARTHURSZYK version to the Biblical “ESTHER SCROLL” . Arthut Szyk has created twoversions , The first one in the 1920’s and the second one in the 1950’s . The1950’s one was published in Israel in 1974 ( One and only edition ) in quite aluxurious edition ( Please read the Ervin Ungar’s article hereunder ). Here for sale is an excellent copy ofthe 1974 most sought after edition , Szyk’s version is very directly HOLOCAUSTRELATED while HAMAN is deressed with black fascist uniforms which are decoratedwith the swastika – An obvious relevant comparison. Over 80 pp throughoutprofusely ILLUSTRATED and DECORATED . Each of Szyk’s magnificently originalpages is accompanied by an Hebrew commentary , Also placed within one Szykdecorated framing . A genuine beauty. Please watch the EXQUISITE DESIGN of thisversion . Not much to be added to the extreme ARTISTIC and HISTORICAL qualitiesof this ONE OF ITS KIND Jewish artistic creation. , One ARTHUR SZYK MASTERPIECE . Exquisitelyillustrated HC and DJ. Over 80 throughout illustrated and decorated unpagedchromo pp. Measures around8.5" x11".Unpaged . Excellent condition. DJ intact.Tightly bound. Clean. ( Pls lookat scan for accurate AS IS images ).Will be sentinside a protective packaging .
PAYMENTS : Payment method accepted : Paypal & All credit cards.SHIPPMENT : Shipp worldwide via registered airmail is $ 29 . Will be sent inside a protective packaging .Handling around5-10 days after payment.
The Book of Esther is one of the books of the Ketuvim ("Writings") of the Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible) and of the Historical Books of the Old Testament. The Book of Esther or the Megillah is the basis for the Jewish celebration of Purim. Its full text is read aloud twice during the celebration, in the evening and again the following morning Setting The Biblical Book of Esther is set in the third year of Ahasuerus, a king of Persia. The name Ahasuerus is equivalent to Xerxes, both deriving from the Persian Khashayarsha, thus Ahasuerus is usually identified as Xerxes I (486-465 BCE), though Ahasuerus is identified as Artaxerxes in the later Greek version of Esther (as well as by Josephus, the Jewish commentary Esther Rabbah, the Ethiopic translation and the Christian theologian Bar-Hebraeus who identified him more precisely as Artaxerxes II ). The Book of Esther tells a story of palace intrigue and genocide thwarted by a Jewish queen of Persia. Plot summary The book commences with a feast organized by Ahasuerus, initially for his court and dignitaries and afterwards for all inhabitants of Shushan. Ahasuerus orders his wife Vashti to display her beauty before the guests. She refuses. Ahasuerus removes her as queen. Ahasuerus then orders all "beautiful young girls to be presented to him, so he can choose a new queen to replace Vashti. One of these is Esther, who had no parents and is being fostered by her cousin Mordechai. She finds favor in the king's eyes, and is made his new wife. Esther does not reveal that she is Jewish. Shortly afterwards, Mordechai discovers a plot by courtiers Bigthan and Teresh to assassinate Ahasuerus. They are apprehended and executed, and Mordechai's service to the king is recorded. Ahasuerus appoints Haman as his prime minister. Mordechai, who sits at the palace gates, falls into Haman's disfavor as he refuses to bow down to him. Having found out that Mordechai is Jewish, Haman plans to kill not just Mordechai but all the Jews in the empire. He obtains Ahasuerus' permission to execute this plan, against payment of ten thousand talents of silver, and he casts lots to choose the date on which to do this - the thirteenth of the month of Adar. When Mordechai finds out about the plans he orders fasting. Mordechai informs Esther what has happened and tells her to intercede with the King. She is afraid to break the law and go to the King uninvited. This entails the death penalty. Mordechai tells her that she must. She requests that all Jews fast and pray for three days together with her, and on the third day she goes to Ahasuerus,who stretches out his sceptre to her which shows that she is not to be punished. She invites him to a feast in the company of Haman. During the feast, she asks them to attend a further feast the next evening. Meanwhile, Haman is again offended by Mordechai and builds a gallows for him. That night, Ahasuerus suffers from insomnia, and when the court's records are read to him to help him sleep, he learns of the services rendered by Mordechai in the previous plot against his life. Ahasuerus is told that Mordechai has not received any recognition for saving the king's life. Just then, Haman appears, and King Ahasuerus asks Haman what should be done for the man that he wishes to honor. Thinking that the man that the king wishes to honor is him, Haman says that the man should be dressed in the king's royal robes and led around on the king's royal horse, while a herald calls: "See how the king honours a man he wishes to reward!" To his horror, the king instructs Haman to do so to Mordechai. Later that evening, Ahasuerus and Haman attend Esther's second banquet, at which she reveals that she is Jewish and that Haman is planning to exterminate her people, including her. Overcome by rage, Ahasuerus leaves the room; meanwhile Haman stays behind and begs Esther for his life, falling upon her in desperation. The king comes back in at this moment and thinks Haman is assaulting the queen; this makes him angrier than before and he orders Haman hanged on the gallows that had been prepared for Mordechai. The previous decree against the Jews cannot be annulled, but the king allows the Jews to defend themselves during attacks. As a result, on 13 Adar, five hundred attackers and Haman's ten sons are killed in Shushan. Mordechai assumes a prominent position in Ahasuerus' court, and institutes an annual commemoration of the delivery of the Jewish people from annihilation.Authorship and date Esther is usually dated to the third or fourth century BCE. Jewish tradition regards it as a redaction by the Great Assembly of an original text written by Mordecai.The Greek additions to Esther (which do not appear in the Jewish/Hebrew; see "Additions to Esther" below) are dated to around the late 2nd century or early 1st BCE. Debate over historicityAs early as the eighteenth century, the lack of clear corroboration of any of the details of the story of the Book of Esther with what was known of Persian history from classical sources led some scholars to doubt that the book was historically accurate. It was argued that the form of the story seems closer to that of a romance than a work of history, and that many of the events depicted therein are implausible and unlikely.From the late nineteenth century onwards, several scholars[citation needed] explored the theory that the Book of Esther actually was a myth related to the spring festival of Purim which may have had a mixed West-Semitic/Akkadian/Canaanite origin. According to this interpretation the tale celebrates the triumph of the Babylonian deities Marduk and Ishtar (which seem phonetically similar to the names of the heroes in this book - Esther for Ishtar and Marduk for Mordechai) over the deities of Elam or more likely the renewal of life in the spring and the casting out of the scapegoat of the old year. This interpretation is explored in depth in the works of Theodor Gaster.Traditionalists like Joyce G Baldwin, a principal of Trinity College, Bristol argue that Esther can be seen to derive from real history. For example, some historians occasionally give strong credence to the narrative based upon the traditions of a people.[citation needed] According to this reasoning because the feast of Purim (which is a retelling of the book of Esther) is integral to Jewish history, there is strong reason to believe this story is indeed based upon a true, though obscure, historical event.Also, based on the derivation of "Ahasuerus" from "Xerxes", identification of Ahasuerus with Xerxes I is common and parallels between Herodotus' account of Xerxes and the events in Esther have been noted.[citation needed] Others have argued for different identifications, particularly noting traditions referring to Ahasuerus as "Artaxerxes" in Greek. In 1923, Dr. Jacob Hoschander wrote The Book of Esther in the Light of History, in which he posited that the events of the book occurred during the reign of Artaxerxes II Mnemon, in the context of a struggle between adherents of the still more-or-less monotheistic Zoroastrianism and those who wanted to bring back the Magian worship of Mithra and Anahita.A strong argument against the historicity of Esther is that the text says that "Mordecai...had been carried away from Jerusalem among the captives carried with King Jeconiah of Judah..."(Esther 2:5-6). Jeconiah ruled Judah circa 598 BCE (he ruled for 3 months according to the Book of 2 Kings), but Xerxes I of Persia ruled from 486-465 BCE. So if the story were indeed historical, Mordecai would have had to be well over 100 years of age during the events related in the story. Identifying Ahasuerus with Artaxerxes I or Artaxerxes II would only make the historicity of the story more improbable as both of these kings ruled after Xerxes I. Some Christian readers have also tried to see the story as a Christian allegory, in the same vein as the Song of Solomon. The various major readings are considered separately in the sections that follow: Esther and Babylonian mythology The History of Religions school of thought, popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, argued against the historicity of the Bible by drawing comparisons between Biblical narratives and pagan myths. The fact that the events of the Book of Esther give rise to the spring festival of Purim was a reason for scholars arguing that the story emerged from a Babylonian seasonal myth. As the 19th/early 20th century scholars did not have the benefit of the Ugaritic texts, they sought an origin in Akkadian tradition rather than the more local West Semitic cultures. In particular, these scholars drew comparisons and parallels between individuals in the Book of Esther and various real and conjectured Babylonian and Elamite gods and goddesses: The name Esther was thought to derive from the similarly sounding Ishtar, the chief Babylonian goddess. Her original Hebrew name Hadassah was compared with Akkadian hadashatu said to be a title of Ishtar meaning "bride". The custom of preparing homentashn at Purim is reminiscent of a description of Ishtar in Jeremiah 7:18, when it was customary "to make cakes to the Queen of Heaven." The name Mordechai was thought to derive from the Babylonian god Marduk. Marduk is a cousin of Ishtar in Chaldean mythology, as was Mordechai a cousin of Esther. The name Vashti was thought to derive from an Elamite goddess named Mashti. The Persian word 'Vashti' is of uncertain meaning, but may mean 'beautiful', so in this theory the author would be using a play on words between the Elamite and Persian. The name Haman was thought to derive from an Elamite demon named Homayun or Humayun or an Elamite god named Uman or Human (or other variations) or alternatively a Babylonian demon. The festival of Purim was thought to derive from various real and conjectured Babylonian or Elamite festivals, including an alleged Elamite or Babylonian festival marking the victory of Ishtar and Marduk over Uman and Mashti, similar to the triumph of Esther and Mordechai over their rivals Haman and Vashti. Other suggestions were that the Babylonian New Year festival (Sumerian Zagmuk, Akkadian Akitu, called Sacaea by Berosus) honouring Marduk - it was suggested that purim ("lots") originally referred to a belief that the gods chose one's fate for the year by lots; the Persian festival of Farvardigan; or the Greek festival of Pithoigia ("wine flask opening"), and it was noted that Hebrew for wine press is purah resembling purim. Some criticisms of the 'Babylonian Mythology' theory: Ishtar was well known to the Jews who officially opposed her worship. Her name in Hebrew scriptures is Ashtoreth which is phonetically unrelated to Esther despite the superficial similarity when transliterated into English (consonantal root עשתר vs אסתר). Although the vowelization of the Hebrew name is thought to be a deliberate mispronunciation reflecting the vowels of the word bosheth denoting a shameful thing, the consonants accurately reflect the original name. "Esther" is most commonly understood to be related to the Persian word for star (cognate with English star) and the Median word for myrtle. (See Esther for a discussion of the meaning of the name.) The Akkadian hadashatu was not a standard title of Ishtar. It occurs once in a description of Ishtar as a "new bride" and its meaning is "new" not "bride". It is a cognate of Hebrew hadash (with a guttural h) and is phonetically unrelated to "Hadassah" (consonantal root חדש vs הדס). The Hamantaschen custom originated amongst Jews of Eastern Europe in relatively recent times. In Hebrew they are called "the ears of Haman." The name Mordechai is indeed most commonly connected with that of the god Marduk. It is considered equivalent to Marduka or Marduku, well attested in the Persepolis texts as a genuine name of the period. The Talmud relates that his full name was Mordecai Bilshan (Megillah 15a). This has been understood as the Babylonian Marduk-bel-shunu ("Marduk is their lord"). Similar accounts of Jews in exile being assigned names relating to Babylonian gods is seen in the Book of Daniel. Babylonian gods and goddesses are indeed organized into families making many including Marduk and Ishtar some form of cousins but this is never a point explicitly stated in Babylonian texts. An Elamite goddess named Mashti is purely conjectural and unattested in sources, whereas "Vashti" can be understood as a genuine Persian name meaning "beautiful". Elamite theophoric elements such as Khuban, Khumban or Khumma are known but are pronounced with an initial guttural consonant and not as Uman or Human or Haman, and are phonetically unrelated to the Persian name Hamayun, Homayun or Humayun, meaning "magnificent". The Babylonian demon is named Humbaba or Huwawa which is also pronounced with an initial guttural consonant kh and unrelated to Haman. The 19th century Bible critic Jensen associated it with the Elamite god Humban, a view dismissed by later scholars. An Elamite or Babylonian festival marking a victory of Ishtar and Marduk over alleged Uman and Mashti is purely conjectural and unattested in sources. The Babylonian New Year occurs at a very different date from Purim (in the month of Nisan not Adar). A decision of fate by lots by the gods is not attested in any sources. Farvardigan was a five day commemoration of the dead bearing no resemblance to Purim. Pithoigia also occurs at a different time to Purim and although Purim is celebrated with wine drinking this is not its focus; moreover the plural of the Hebrew for wine press is puroth not purim Nonetheless, there are some similarities between some Babylonian myths and the story of Esther. As for Haman, several etymologies have been proposed for this name. It may be related to the Persian name Omanes, recorded by Greek historians or with the Persian name Vohuman meaning "good thoughts". It may be derived from the Persian word Hamayun meaning "illustrious" or "magnificent", or from Homayun, or Humayun, or from the sacred drink Haoma. Historical reading Those arguing in favour of an historical reading of Esther, most commonly identify Ahasuerus with Artaxerxes II (ruled 405 - 359 B.C.) although in the past it was often assumed that he was Xerxes I (ruled 486 - 465 B.C.). The Hebrew Ahasuerus is most likely derived from Persian Khshayarsha, the origin of the Greek Xerxes. The Greek historian Herodotus wrote that Xerxes sought his harem after being defeated in the Greco-Persian Wars. He makes no reference to individual members of the harem with the exception of a domineering Queen consort Amestris, a daughter of one of his generals, Otanes. (Ctesias however refers to a father-in-law and general of Xerxes named Onaphas). Amestris has often been identified with Vashti in the past. The identification is problematic however - Amestris remained a powerful figure well into the reign of her son, Artaxerxes I while Vashti is portrayed as dismissed in the early part of Xerxes's reign. (Alternative attempts have been made to identify her with Esther, although Esther is an orphan whose father was a Jew named Abihail.) The name Marduka or Marduku (considered equivalent to Mordecai) has been found as the name of officials in the Persian court in thirty texts from the period of Xerxes I and his father Darius, and may refer to up to four individuals with the possibility that one of these is the Biblical Mordecai. The Septuagint version of Esther however translates the name Ahasuerus as Artaxerxes - a Greek name derived from the Persian: Artakhshatra. Josephus too relates that this was the name by which he was known to the Greeks and the Midrashic text, Esther Rabba also makes the identification. Bar-Hebraeus identified Ahasuerus explicitly as Artaxerxes II. This is not to say that the names are equivalent: Hebrew has a form of the name Artaxerxes distinct from Ahasuerus and a direct Greek rendering of Ahasuerus is used by Josephus as well as in Septuagint occurrences of the name outside the Book of Esther. Rather the Hebrew name Ahasuerus accords with an inscription of the time that notes that Artaxerxes II was named also Arshu, understood as a shortening of Achshiyarshu the Babylonian rendering of the Persian Khshayarsha (Xerxes) through which the Hebrew Achashverosh (Ahasuerus) is derived. [5]. Ctesias related that Artaxerxes II was also called Arsicas which is understood as a similar shortening with the Persian suffix -ke that is applied to shortened names. Deinon related that Artaxerxes II was also called Oarses which is also understood to be derived from Khshayarsha. Another view attempts to identify him instead with Artaxerxes I (ruled 465 - 424 B.C.) - the latter had a Babylonian concubine, Kosmartydene, who was the mother of his son Darius II (ruled 424 - 405 B.C.). Jewish tradition relates that Esther was the mother of a King Darius and so some try to identify Ahasuerus with Artaxerxes I and Esther with Kosmartydene. Based on the view that the Ahasuerus of the Book of Tobit is identical with that of the Book of Esther, some have also identified him as Nebuchadnezzar's ally Cyaxares (ruled 625 - 585 B.C.). In certain manuscripts of Tobit the former is called Achiachar which like the Greek: Cyaxares is thought to be derived from Persian: Akhuwakhshatra. Depending on the interpretation of Esther 2:5-6, Mordecai or his great-grandfather Kish was carried away from Jerusalem with Jeconiah by Nebuchadnezzar, in 597 B.C.. The view that it was Mordecai would be consistent with the identification of Ahasuerus with Cyaxares. Identifications with other Persian monarchs have also been suggested. Jacob Hoschander has argued that evidence of the historicity of Haman and his father Hamedatha is seen in Omanus and Anadatus mentioned by Strabo as being honoured with Anahita in the city of Zela. Hoschander argues that these were not deities as Strabo supposed but garbled forms of "Haman" and "Hamedatha" who were being worshipped as martyrs. The names are indeed unattested in Persian texts as gods. [5] (Attempts have been made to connect both "Omanus" and "Haman" with the Zoroastrian term Vohu Mana, however this denotes the principle of "Good Thoughts" and is not the name of a deity.) Whenever the book was written and whatever the historicity of the events recounted in it, clearly by the time it was written the term "Yehudim" (יהודים - Jews) already gained a meaning quite close to what it means up to the present - i.e. an ethnic-religious group, scattered in many countries, organised in autonomous communities and the target of intense hatred by fanatic groups. Allegorical reading There are many classical Jewish readings of allegories into the book of Esther, mostly from Hasidic sources. They say that the literal meaning is true, however there is hidden behind this historical account many allegories. Some Christian readers consider this story to contain an allegory, representing the interaction between the church as 'bride' and God. This reading is related to the allegorical reading of the Song of Solomon and to the theme of the Bride of God, which in Jewish tradition manifests as the Shekinah. Relation to the rest of the Bible Esther is the only book of the Tanakh that is not represented among the Dead Sea scrolls. It has often been compared to the first half of the Book of Daniel and to the deuterocanonical Books of Tobit and Judith for its subject matter. The story is also the first time that the word Jew (יְהוּדִי) was used. Before this, Jews were referred to as Hebrews or Israelites. Moreover, whatever the historical validity of the specific events depicted, the book clearly reflects a situation in which Jews were an ethnic-religious minority - scattered in many countries, organised in self-contained, self-governing communities and subjected to intensive and sometimes violent hatred by some members of the surrounding society. Clearly, whenever the book was actually composed, a phenomenon which can already be identified as a kind of antisemitism was in existence - whether or not Haman is an actual historical character. Additions to Esther An additional six chapters appear interspersed in Esther in the Septuagint, the Greek translation, which then was noted by Jerome in compiling the Latin Vulgate; additionally, the Greek text contains many small changes in the meaning of the main text. The extra chapters include several prayers to God, perhaps because it was felt that the above-mentioned lack of mention of God was inappropriate in a holy book. Jerome recognized them as additions not present in the Hebrew Text and placed them at the end of his Latin translation as chapters 10:4-16:24. However, some modern Catholic English Bibles restore the Septuagint order, such as Esther in the NAB. By the time Esther was written, the foreign power visible on the horizon as a future threat to Judah was the Macedonians of Alexander the Great, who defeated the Persian empire about 150 years after the time of the story of Esther; the Septuagint version noticeably calls Haman a Macedonian where the Hebrew text describes him as an Agagite. The canonicity of these Greek additions has been a subject of scholarly disagreement practically since their first appearance in the Septuagint –- Martin Luther, being perhaps the most vocal Reformation-era critic of the work, considered even the original Hebrew version to be of very doubtful value.[citation needed] Luther's complaints against the book carried past the point of scholarly critique and may reflect Luther's antisemitism, which is disputed, such as in the biography of Luther by Derek Wilson, which points out that Luther's anger at the Jews was not at their race but at their theology. The Council of Trent, the summation of the Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation, declared the entire book, both Hebrew text and Greek additions, to be canonical. While modern Roman Catholic scholars openly recognize the Greek additions as clearly being additions to the text, the Book of Esther is used twice in commonly used sections of the Catholic Lectionary. In both cases, the text used is not only taken from a Greek addition, the readings also are the prayer of Mordecai, and nothing of Esther's own words is ever used. The Eastern Orthodox Church uses the Septuagint version of Esther, as it does for all of the Old Testament. The additions are specifically listed in the Thirty-Nine Articles, Article VI, of the Church of England[6]: "The rest of the Book of Esther". Some scholars suggest that Additions to Esther is the work of an Egyptian Jew, writing around 170 BCE, who sought to give the book a more religious tone, and to suggest that the Jews were saved from destruction because of their piety.Esther Rabbah includes all of Additions to Esther save the "letter texts". It is these "letter texts" that contain the ahistorical assertions that Haman was a Greek. The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) (Hebrew: צְבָא הַהֲגָנָה לְיִשְׂרָאֵל, Tzva HaHagana LeYisra'el (help·info), lit. Defense Army for Israel), commonly known in Israel by the Hebrew acronym Tzahal (צה"ל), are Israel's military forces, comprising the ground forces, air force and navy. It is the sole military wing of the Israeli security forces, and has no civilian jurisdiction within Israel. The IDF is headed by its Chief of General Staff, the Ramatkal, subordinate to the Defense Minister of Israel; the current Chief of Staff, since 2007, is Lieutenant General Gabi Ashkenazi. At the order of Defense Minister David Ben-Gurion on May 26, 1948, the Israel Defense Forces were officially formed as a conscript army out of the paramilitary group Haganah, incorporating the militant groups Irgun and Lehi. It served as Israel's armed forces in all the country's major military operations — including the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the 1956 Sinai War, the 1967 Six-Day War, the War of Attrition, the 1973 Yom Kippur War, Operation Litani, the 1982 Lebanon War, Operation Defensive Wall, the 2006 Lebanon War and Operation Cast Lead. While originally the IDF was operational on three fronts—against Lebanon and Syria in the north, Jordan and Iraq in the east, and Egypt in the south—after the 1979 Egyptian–Israeli Peace Treaty, its activities have mainly been concentrated in southern Lebanon and the Palestinian Territories, including the First and the Second Intifada. The Israel Defense Forces differs from most armed forces in the world in many ways, including the conscription of women, and the structure, with close relations between the ground forces, air force and navy. Since its founding, the IDF has striven to be a unique army fitting Israel's specific requirements. In 1965, the Israel Defense Forces was awarded the Israel Prize for its contribution to education.[3] The IDF uses several technologies developed in Israel, many of them made specifically to match the IDF's needs, such as the Merkava main battle tank, advanced Hi-Tech weapons systems, and the Galil and Tavor assault rifles. The Uzi submachine gun was used by the IDF until December 2003, ending a service that began in 1954. The IDF also has close military relations with the United States,[4] including development cooperation, such as on the F-15I jet, THEL laser defense system, and the Arrow missile defense system. History Main articles: History of the Israel Defense Forces and Military operations conducted by the Israeli Defense Forces The IDF traces its roots to Jewish paramilitary organizations in the New Yishuv, starting with the Second Aliyah. The first such organization was Bar-Giora, founded in September 1907. It was converted to Hashomer in April 1909, which operated until the British Mandate of Palestine came into being in 1920. Hashomer was an elitist organization with narrow scope, and was mainly created to protect against criminal gangs seeking to steal property. During World War I the forerunners of the Haganah/IDF were the Zion Mule Corps and the Jewish Legion. After the Arab riots against Jews in April 1920, the Yishuv's leadership saw the need to create a nationwide underground defense organization, and the Haganah was founded in June of the same year. The Haganah became a full-scale defense force after the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine with an organized structure, consisting of three main units—the Field Corps, Guard Corps and the Palmach. During World War II the successor to the Jewish Legion of World War I was the Jewish Brigade. The IDF was founded following the establishment of the State of Israel, after Defense Minister and Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion published the order for its creation on May 26, 1948. The order called for the establishment of the Israel Defense Forces, and the abolishment of all other Jewish armed forces. Although Ben-Gurion had no legal authority to issue such an order, the order was made legal by the cabinet on May 31.[5] The two other Jewish underground organizations, Irgun and Lehi, agreed to join the IDF if they would be able to form independent units and agreed not to make independent arms purchases. This was the background for the dispute which led to the Altalena Affair, when following a confrontation regarding the weapons it brought resulted in a battle between Irgun members the newly-created IDF. It ended when the ship was shelled. Following the affair, all independent Irgun and Lehi units were either disbanded or merged into the IDF. The Palmach, a strong lobby within the Haganah, also joined the IDF with provisions, and Ben Gurion responded by disbanding its staff in 1949, after which many senior Palmach officers retired, notably its first commander, Yitzhak Sadeh. The new army organized itself during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, when Syria, Lebanon, Egypt, Transjordan, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Yemen declared war on Israel. Twelve infantry and armored brigades were created: Golani, Carmeli, Alexandroni, Kiryati, Givati, Etzioni, the 7th and 8th armored brigades, Oded, Harel, Yiftach and Negev.[6] After the war, some of the brigades were converted to reserve units, and others were disbanded. Directorates and corps were created from corps and services in the Haganah, and this basic structure in the IDF still exists today. Immediately after the 1948 war, the Israel Defense Forces shifted to low intensity conflict against Arab Palestinian guerrillas. The 1956 Suez Crisis was the IDF's first test of strength after 1949, and the new army proved itself by capturing the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, which was later returned. In the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel captured the Sinai Peninsula, West Bank and Golan Heights from the surrounding Arab states, changing the balance of power in the region as well as the role of the IDF. In the following years leading up to the Yom Kippur War, the IDF fought a war of attrition against Egypt in the Sinai and a border war against the PLO in Jordan, culminating in the Battle of Karameh. The surprise of the Yom Kippur War and its aftermath completely changed the IDF's procedures and approach to warfare. Organizational changes were made and more time was dedicated to training for conventional warfare. However, in the following years the army's role slowly shifted again to low-intensity conflict, urban warfare and counter-terrorism. It was involved in the Lebanese Civil War, initiating Operation Litani and later the 1982 Lebanon War, where the IDF ousted Palestinian guerilla organizations from Lebanon. Palestinian militancy has been the main focus of the IDF ever since, especially during the First and Second Intifadas, Operation Defensive Shield and the Gaza War, causing the IDF to change many of its values and publish the IDF Spirit. The Shia organization Hezbollah has also been a growing threat, against which the IDF fought a full-scale war in 2006. Etymology The name Israel Defense Forces (Hebrew: צְבָא הַהֲגָנָה לְיִשְׂרָאֵל, Tzva HaHagana LeYisra'el, literally "The Defense Army for Israel") was ratified by the Israeli cabinet on May 26, 1948, the day that the order for the army's founding was published by David Ben-Gurion. The main suggested alternative was Israeli Army/Army of Israel (Hebrew: צְבָא יִשְׂרָאֵל, Tzva Yisra'el), while others included Jewish Army and Army of the State. The name was chosen for two reasons: because it emphasized that army's role was for defense only, and because it incorporated the name Haganah, the paramilitary organization it was based on.[7] At least three people claim to have coined the name. The Defense Ministry CEO at the time, David Izre'eli, wrote that he suggested it to Levi Eshkol, who forwarded the suggestion to the cabinet. The Chief of Staff Ya'akov Dori, while not claiming to have personally coined the name, said that it was prevalent among senior army personnel and therefore the only natural name. Ben-Gurion was the third, quoted as saying "I gave the name. The name was 'Israel Defense Forces'". Among the primary opponents of the name were Minister Haim-Moshe Shapira and the Hatzohar party, both suggesting the name Israeli Army.[7] Organization All branches of the IDF are subordinate to a single General Staff. The Chief of the General Staff is the only serving officer having the rank of Lieutenant General (Rav Aluf). He reports directly to the Defense Minister and indirectly to the Prime Minister of Israel and the cabinet. Chiefs of Staff are formally appointed by the cabinet, based on the Defense Minister's recommendation, for three years, but the government can vote to extend their service to four (and in rare occasions even five) years. The current chief of staff is Gabi Ashkenazi. He replaced Dan Halutz, who resigned from the IDF following the 2006 Lebanon War. ******* The Israeli Declaration of Independence (Hebrew: הכרזת העצמאות, Hakhrazat HaAtzma'ut or Hebrew: מגילת העצמאות Megilat HaAtzma'ut), made on 14 May 1948 (5 Iyar, 5708), the day the British Mandate expired, was the official announcement that the new Jewish state named the State of Israel had been formally established in parts of what was known as the British Mandate for Palestine and on land where, in antiquity, the Kingdoms of Israel, Judah and Judea had once been.It has been called the start of the "Third Jewish Commonwealth" by some observers. The "First Jewish Commonwealth" ended with the destruction of Solomon's Temple in 586 BCE, the second with the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, and the crushing of Bar Kokhba's revolt by the Roman Empire in the year 135.In Israel the event is celebrated annually with the national holiday Yom Ha'atzmaut (Hebrew: יום העצמאות, lit. Independence Day), the timing of which is based on the Hebrew calendar date of the declaration (5, Iyar, 5708). Palestinias commemorate the event as Nakba Day (Arabic: يوم النكبة, Yawm al-nakba, lit. Catastrophe Day) on 15 May every year.The General Assembly of the United Nations had resolved that 'No discrimination of any kind shall be made between the inhabitants on the ground of race, religion, language or sex.' and that a declaration to that effect would be made to the United Nations by the Provisional Government of each proposed State before independence. The General Assembly resolution mandated that the stipulations contained in the Declaration were to be non-derogable, they were to be 'recognized as fundamental laws of the State and no law, regulation or official action shall conflict or interfere with these stipulations, nor shall any law, regulation or official action prevail over them.' The Declaration did promise that the State of Israel would ensure complete equality of social and political rights to all its inhabitants irrespective of religion, race or sex, and guaranteed freedom of religion, conscience, language, education and culture. However, the Knesset maintains that declaration is neither a law nor an ordinary legal document.The Supreme Court of Israel has ruled that the guarantees were merely guiding principles, and that the Declaration is not a constitutional law making a practical ruling on the upholding or nullification of various ordinances and statutes. Whenever an explicit statutory measure of the Knesset leaves no room for doubt, it is honored even if inconsistent with the principles in the Declaration of Independence.While the possibility of a Jewish homeland in Palestine had been a goal of Zionist organisations since the late 19th century, it was not until 1917 and the Balfour declaration that the idea gained the official backing of a major power. The declaration stated that the British government supported the creation of a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine. In 1936 the Peel Commission suggested partitioning Mandate Palestine into a Jewish state and an Arab state, though it was rejected as unworkable by the government and was at least partially to blame for the 1936-39 Arab revolt.In the face of increasing violence, the British handed the issue over to the United Nations. The result was Resolution 181, a partition plan to divide Palestine between Jews and Arabs. The Jewish state was to receive around 56% of the land area of Mandate Palestine, encompassing 82% of the Jewish population, though it would be separated from Jerusalem, designated as an area to be administered by the UN. The plan was accepted by most of the Jewish population, but rejected by much of the Arab populace. On 29 November 1947, the plan was put to a vote in the United Nations General Assembly The result was 33 to 13 in favour of the plan, with 10 abstentions. The Arab countries (all of which had opposed the plan) proposed to query the International Court of Justice on the competence of the General Assembly to partition a country against the wishes of the majority of its inhabitants, but were again defeated. The division was to take effect on the date of British withdrawal from the territory (15 May 1948), though the UK refused to implement the plan, arguing it was unacceptable to both sides.Ullman is an example of a creator who combines talent in a variety of visual art presenting the multi-area(total design) spirit and the totality of the Bauhaus mainly the utopic concept of the artist who contributes various cultural services to the society beautifying the human surroundings and meaning to his life by means of inspiring it. Gad Ullman is a very unique Israeli artist who created in the past two decades within the Fine Arts, Design, Visual media as well as art in the public space. In the above areas of art Ulman has reached a high level (stndarts) of achievements and innovations. Ulman is one of the biggest experts in printmaking, not only as a creator but also as a researcher who published a wide information in the press on the various techniques positioning it to the public in Israel. He combined in his graphic work the traditional techniques to his expertise in photography and commercial printing knowing how to invent ways to turn graphic techniques to measures of design in the public space. According to experts, his prints, combining(screenprint) blocks and photo-etchings are of the most interesting ever done in Israel. Ulman was one of the first to turn photography to a main factor in graphic design and press, mainly in weekly magazine which started in the 70's to become a central measure.From the mid 80's Ulman started to create large public works in which he took advantage of his creativity and visual techniques. Part of his works in the public space combine impressive and originality of sculpture with kinetic sculpture absorbing its inspiration from children's games and popular environment which is an original unique achievement. His works within the urban sculpture is known to most of the public such as the entrance to the Cinemateque in Tel Aviv, the Yedioth Achronoth House, The Asia House, reliefs , enamel and mosaics created in many sites in Israel. Ulman is also known in the "Pure" visual arts. He had significant achievements in photography mainly the processed and photomontage, illustration and art print.Gad Ulman has a continuous interest in the human body and the human motion. In the early years of his creativity it was expressed in fast drawings of images and the ability to deliver an image in minimal spontaneous lines. Further on, his interest has expanded to dance, to theatre acting and continuous interest in sports. In the last several years he has started to combine a show in his exhibitions and the connection between the images presented to the sculptures is eminent. Part of his works in the public space combine sculpture with historical elements together with kinetic sculpture. His kinetic creation is absorbing its inspiration from children's games, such as swings and simple sports, such as Matkot game. However a the same time, mainly after a heart attack which he went through, subjects connected to the weakness of the body and its future destruction have started to interest him. In the center of his exhibition "Balance" which was presented in 2008 in Meirov House in Holon, the images Gad Ulman has created were wrapped and tortured, as a homage to the death in the holocaust of his grandparents. The act he created parallel to the exhibition allowed him to present a wrapped body image, the body of the artist himself, personifying the tragic situation which the sculptures presented. Recently Gad Ulman has returned to drawing in charcoal on brown cardboard in large size.In conclusion, Gad Ulman's art creations from the last decade are a proof of his innovative talent. The ability to design, life experience and the know-how of an artist who accumulated skills in a variety of areas in art, reaching full maturity, combines deep emotions and gloomy thoughts together with joy of acting and love for creation.Gad Ullman, Israeli, born 1935,Gad Ullman was born in Tel Aviv to a family of German Jews. He studied art at the Avni Studio and later at the Avni Institute under Yehezel Streichman and Avigdor Stematzky. In the second half of the 1950s, he studied graphics at the Bezalel School of Art. At the same time, he studied at the School for Art Teachers. After graduating, he continued his training in various artistic techniques, for example, photography with Yaakov Agur.In 1964, he was appointed designer, illustrator and graphic editor of the weekend supplement of Haaretz newspaper. He stayed at this job until 1984. In 1965, he had his first one-man show. In the second half of the 1960s, he was active in the Ten+ group. In 1973-1974, he created several works influenced by the Yom Kippur War.Over the years, Ullman has worked in various styles. He often incorporates printmaking techniques. From the 1970s, he began creating public art installations, among them "From Alef to Taf" (1976) at the heaquarters of Yediot Ahronot newspaper and "From Gan Hadassah to Gan Ha'ir" (1986) a wall mural at the Bank Leumi branch at Gan Ha'ir in Tel Aviv. Among his best known works as an illustrator is the Telepele series of children's books (1979).Education1949 Art with Aharon Avni1955 Avni Institute, Tel Aviv, with Yehezkel Streichman and Avigdor Stematsky1956-60 Bezalel Academy of Art & Design, Jerusalem, Graphics, Graduate, Art Teacher's Certificate1956-60 the School for Art Teachers.1960 Advanced studies in Photography with Yakov Agur1969 Course in the technology of etching with Tuvia beeri1969 Course in etching techniques with Tuvia Beeri.1971 Course in screen-printing1970 Course in advanced printmaking techniques, with Arik Kilemnik.1976 course in lithographyTeaching1974-75 Tel Aviv University, History of Art Department, Faculty of Arts, lecturer in graphic techniques1984-85 WIZO Haifa1985-86 Avni Institute, Tel Aviv-Yafo, History of drawing and printmaking,1995-97 Israel Painters and Sculptors Association, Tel Aviv1997-2001 Artists Association, Ashdod, Drawing and printmaking techiquesAwards And Prizes1982 Ben-Yitzhak Prize for Children's Books Illustration, Israel Museum, Jerusalem1993 "Golden Cylinder" Prize, Art for the People1999 First Prize in Golden Section Competition, Designers Association in Israel, Environmental Design Area2000 First Prize in Golden Section Competition, Designers Association in Israel, Environmental Design Area2001 First Prize in Golden Section Competition, Designers Association in Israel, Environmental Design Area2002 First Prize in Golden Section Competition, Designers Association in Israel, Environmental Design Area2002 Competition, Israeli Graphic Designers Organization, First prize2003 First Prize in Golden Section Competition, Designers Association in Israel, Environmental Design Area2004 First Prize in Golden Section Competition, Designers Association in Israel, Environmental Design Area2004 Competition, Israeli Graphic Designers Organization, First prize2005 First Prize in Golden Section Competition, Designers Association in Israel, Environmental Design Area2006 First Prize in Golden Section Competition, Designers Association in Israel, Environmental Design AreaEnvironmental Sculptures1972 Ministry of Communication, Jerusalem - enameled murals1973 "Warrior Home"-Seven murals each one consisting of one huge Hebrew letter, Tel Aviv1975 Tadiran, Holon , Printed circuits on modular aluminum1978 "Science and Handicrafts", Asia House, Tel Aviv. Copper etched murals, each describing a different subject such as Hebrew culture, science, history, industry.1976 Yediot Aharonot, Tel Aviv, Aluminum mural describing the history of the Hebrew letter1976 Plaza Hotel, Tiberias -Copper etched plates on the theme of Tiberias1978 Basel Hotel, Tel Aviv - "Birds Eye View of Sinai Landscape">br>1978 Bank Leumi Tel Aviv, Dizengoff Center- Aluminum mural describing history of the bank1978 Migdalohr Tower, Tel Aviv - Aluminum mural describing the six days of creation,1986 "Hadassah Shield for City Garden", Bank Leumi, City Garden, Tel Aviv. Painting, oil on wood.1999 "The Water's Edge", Assisted Living Residence Seven Stars, Herzliya. Mural.
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